1.Pronoun
Pronoun atau kata
ganti adalah kata yang dapat menggantikan suatu kata benda atau frasa kata
benda. Kata ganti berfungsi menghindari pengulangan kata benda atau frasa kata
benda yang sama yang telah disebut sebelumnya.
Dalam bahasa Inggris, pronoun
terdiri dari tujuh jenis, yaitu:
1.
Reflexive Pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
adalah kata ganti yang digunakan untuk menunjukkan tindakan atau kegiatan yang
dilakukan oleh diri subjek sendiri (subject of the verb) atau dengan kata lain
memberi penekanan pada unsur subjek atau objek. Kata ganti bentuk tunggal
mendapat akhiran –self, dan bentuk jamak dengan akhiran –selves.
Contoh:
Myself = Saya sendiri
Yourself/yourselves =
Kamu sendiri/kalian sendiri
Themselves = Mereka
sendiri
Ourselves = Kami
sendiri
Himself = Dia sendiri
(laki-laki)
Herself = Dia sendiri
(perempuan)
Itself= Dia sendiri
(benda atau binatang)
Contoh kalimatnya:
– Sunny made this book
by herself.
– He enjoyed himself
by watching two movies.
– The children are old
enough to look after themselves.
2.
Possessive Pronoun (kata ganti milik)
Possessive pronoun
adalah kata ganti yang memperlihatkan kepunyaan seseorang atau kelompok.
Ada dua bentuk
possessive pronoun yaitu dependent (ditempatkan sebelum suatu kata benda) dan
independent (ditempatkan setelah suatu kata kerja).
Contoh :
Dependent seperti my,
your, his, her, its, our, their
Independent seperti
mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
Contohnya:
§
This green bag is hers. (Tas hijau itu adalah miliknya).
§
This small car is mine. Those are theirs. (Mobil mini ini milikku. Milik
mereka yang itu)
§
This is not your suitcase. I think that is yours. (Koper ini bukan kopermu.
Saya rasa punyamu yang di sana)
3.
Personal Pronoun (kata ganti orang)
Personal pronoun
adalah kata ganti pada subyek dan obyek yang menunjukkan pada orang atau
penamaan.
Contoh:
I => Me
You => You
She => Her
He => Him
It => It
We => Us
They => Them
Contoh kalimatnya:
§
I gave this book to Anita yesterday. She feels great when read it. (Saya
memberikan buku ini kepada Anita kemarin. Dia merasa sangat senang ketika
membacanya).
§
My mother take a glass with her. She wants fill it with the juice. (Ibu
saya mengambil sebuah gelas bersamanya. Dia ingin mengisinya dengan jus).
4.
Interrogative Pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
adalah kata-kata yang mempertanyakan orang atau benda. Ini antara lain: who,
whom (siapa), whose (punya siapa), why (mengapa), which (yang mana), dan what
(apa).
kata ganti atau
pronomina yang digunakan untuk menanyakan orang, benda, atau suatu pilihan.
Kata ganti yang sering dipakai adalah what, which who, whom dan whose.
Contoh:
– What is broken? (Apa
yang pecah?)
– Who has make you
sad? (Siapa yang membuat kamu sedih?))
– Which shop sold the
kimchi? (Toko yang mana menjual Kimchi?)
2.Narrative Tenses
Narrative tenses are
the grammatical structures that you use when telling a story, or talking about
situations and activities which happened at a defined past time.
When narrating past
events, DO NOT mix past and present tenses (avoid using
the present perfect and present simple), as these will confuse the
reader/listener about when things really happened.
Here are the most
common narrative tenses and how they are used:
1.
The Simple Past Tense.
The past simple is
used:
a)
to express a completed action at a definite time in the past. The separate
events which occur in sequence in a narrative are expressed using this tense.
E.g.
I woke up (1) at 8am,
had a shower (2) and ate some breakfast (3). I left for work (4) at 9am.
NOTE! The past simple
is the most common tense after ‘When?’ in questions.
b)
to express past habits.
I went to school in
São Paulo until my family moved to Rio.
NOTE! Used to + verb
is often used to express past habits and states that happened in the past, but do not
happen now. Used to can not be used for actions which only occurred once.
E.g.
I used to work for Petrobrás. (I don’t work for them now)
I didn’t use to like
living in Ipanema. (I do like it now)
Where did you use to
go for lunch? (You don’t go there now)
Would (+ adverb of
frequency) + verb can be used to express past habits which do not happen now.
E.g.
My grandfather would always read the newspaper at breakfast time. (He doesn’t
do it now)
Using ‘would’ instead
of ‘used to’ often gives an idea of nostalgia. However, if the adverb of frequency
is stressed, it can give the idea that the habit was annoying.
E.g.
My dog would never do what I wanted it to
do!
NOTE! ‘WOULD’ CAN NOT
BE USED FOR PAST STATES!
E.g. I would live in São Paulo. IS WRONG!
2.
The Past Continuous Tense.
As with all continuous
tenses, the past continuous gives the idea of activity and duration.
The past continuous is
used:
a)
To describe the situation in which the events of the narrative occurred.
E.g.
When I woke up at 8am
(1) the sun was shining (2) and the birds were singing (2). I had a shower (3),
ate some breakfast (4) and left for work at 9am. (5)
b)
to express an activity in progress at a time in the past.
E.g.
What were you doing
(1) when I phoned (2) you?
NOTE! The past
continuous is the most common tense after ‘while’ in questions and statements.
The past continuous
also expresses the idea of:
An interrupted
activity
E.g. She was
cooking dinner when the door bell rang. (She cooked dinner = she finished it)
An unfinished activity
E.g. I was
reading the book you lent me. (I read the book… = I finished reading the whole
book)
A repeated action
E.g. They were
shooting at the enemy. (They shot…. = They fired the gun one time only)
A temporary situation
E.g. He was standing
on the corner waiting for a bus. (It stood on the corner. = Permanent
situation)
NOTE! The past
continuous can also be used as ‘future in the past’. This will be explained
later.
3.
The Past Perfect Simple Tense.
The past perfect
simple is used
a)
to show that an action or situation happened BEFORE the events in the narrative
described in the simple past.
E.g.
When I woke up at 8am
(1), the sun was shining and the birds were singing. I had slept (2) really
well the night before. I had a shower (3), ate some breakfast (4) and left for
work at 9am. (5)
NOTE! It is bad style
to use too many verbs in the past perfect . As soon as it is clear that the
events happened before the time that the narrative is set, use the simple past
and past continuous.
E.g.
When I woke up at 8am,
the sun was shining and the birds were singing. I had slept really well the
night before. I dreamt about the time I spent living in Switzerland when I was
a teenager. I had a shower, ate some breakfast and left for work at 9am.
NOTE! If the subject
of two verbs is the same, you don’t have to repeat the ‘had’ auxiliary.
E.g.
When I arrived, he’d
finished his dinner and left the room.
b)
Making a narrative more interesting to read.
It is generally seen
as bad literary style to have too many verbs in the same tense. In English it
is always best to avoid repetition where possible.
Look again at the
example used to illustrate the past simple tense.
This same sentence
could be improved for dramatic effect by using the past perfect simple.
E.g.
I woke up at 8am and
left for work after I’d had a shower
and eaten some breakfast.
CONJUNCTIONS (After,
As soon as, Before, By the time, Once, till, When, Unless, Until)
With these
conjunctions of time, the past perfect shows that the first action MUST BE COMPLETED before the second action begins,
otherwise the past simple is used.
E.g.
After….she finished, they
left / she had finished, they left. (She had to finish
first)
As soon as…we arrived she said
“hello”. / I had done it, I sent it to her. (I had to do it first)
She wouldn’t sign the
contract before…. seeing it / she had seen
it. (She had to see it first)
They wouldn’t go unless….she came with them / they had seen it was safe.
(It was important to
finish checking that it was safe before going)
For more information
on conjunctions of time, see the worksheet called: When do I use the perfect
tenses?.
4.
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense.
a)
The past perfect continuous is used for longer activities that were happening
continuously up until a specified time in the past.
E.g.
He looked very tired
(1), he had been working very hard (2) over the past three weeks.
As with the past
continuous, the past perfect continuous can show the following:
Unfinished activity
E.g.
He hadn’t heard the telephone ring because he’d been reading.
Repeated activity
E.g.
I was tired. I’d been cutting wood all day.
With the past perfect
simple, the focus is on the completed activity.
E.g.
He’d read three reports that morning.
He’d cut a huge pile
of wood.
5.
The Future in the Past.
The future in the past
is used to look into the future from a point of time in the past. However, this
“future” event still occurred at a time before the present time.
E.g.
I woke up (1) at 8am
yesterday. I was meeting my boss (2) at ten o’clock that morning, so I wouldn’t
be able to have lunch (3) with Susan. I wasn’t going to get home (4) again
until late that night.
Depending on the
situation, the following tenses are used in the future in the past:
The past simple (a
timetabled event) The past continuous (an arrangement)
Would (a prediction)
Was going to (a plan)
Would be doing (an
action at a specific time)
Would have done
(action completed before a specified time
